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The seating on the throne of the
"Two Sicilies" of Charles III (1734),
son of Philip IV, signaled the end of the Spanish
vice-regency and the beginning of the Bourbon dynasty
(in Calabria) and the true autonomy of the Kingdom
of Naples. He ruled until 1759 when he was then
called to occupy the throne of Spain occasioned
by the death of his brother Ferdinand II who left
no heirs.
He (Charles III) was succeeded by his youngest son
(born Dec. 01, 1751) by the name of Ferdinand IV
(1759-1806). Charles III had begun a series of reforms
that awoke the enthusiasm of men of culture and
ignited hopes of a better life among the "have-not"
class. A foundation was laid for the renewal of
the South, an attempt to lessen the baronial prerogatives
and new relationships with the Holy See in which
many ancient ecclesiastic privileges in use since
the time of Charles of Anjou were abolished; (a
diminished right of asylum which was restricted
to churches for less serious crimes as an example),
gave impulse to industry, commerce and agriculture.
In Calabria, however, these improvements were limited
for the most part, to marine commerce in so much
as roads were non-existent and industry was reduced
exclusively to the production of silk at that time
in crisis. For some years the reforms were continued
by Ferdinand IV who ruled through the regency of
Bernardo Tanucci, minister of his father Charles
III and inspiration of the reform.
In 1768, Ferdinand IV married Maria Carolina of
Austria who coerced her husband to enter into the
orbit of Austria. This marriage was the cause of
dire consequences for the kingdom and for Calabria.
In 1777, Tanucci was relieved of his duties and
the reform was arrested. The feudal power was again
restored. The Barons, hurt by the reforms, seized
on the opportunity to set up excessive exploitation
of the agricultural class. They amassed riches that
did not favor an economic development but served
merely to enlarge their estates at the expense of
the small property owners who had to sell their
properties to pay the excessive taxes. The devastating
«Jus baronali» (the rights of the barons) were exaggerated;
for Cerenzia,(and nearby towns) taxes were added
upon taxes, e.g. the right to live in the realm
was taxed, the right to own animals was taxed, non-animal
owners were taxed and taxes were invented for every
imaginable reason. The taxes, licit and illicit,
became so heavy that it affected the every day activities
of the citizens.<1>
Nevertheless, these feudal barons deepened the resentment
and rancor of the working class as they were mitigated
by the King, incapable of ruling them and fearing
reactions, called them to Court and received tribute
and formal homage.
But even the feudal barons werre subject to losing
property to the central powers. Property was confiscated
from the Nicola Cortese family of Verzino for evasion
of fiscal responsibility. The Princess of Cerenzia,
Ippolita Rota, was in dispute with the monarch over
what she considered incorrect entries by Muzio Antonio
Oliverio (her Royal agent) -Working class and barony
alike were resentful of the monarchy<2><3>
The terrible famine of 1763, the feudal abuses,
poor crops, caused popular uprisings in the Kingdom.
The socio-economic situation was worsened by the
terrible earthquakes of 1783 which represented for
Calabria an unprecedented catastophe. These occasioned
everywhere death and destruction even of the geography
of the region. The population stunned by the calamity,
could not overcome the terror that possessed them
to begin an immediate reconstruction. The uheavals
even modified the climate and created 215 lakes
which were subsequently drained by the Bourb0ons
but in whose wake an epidemic of malaria broke out
killing another 18,000 people.<4>
(a description of malaria followed) At the end of
the 18th century Calabria had 780,000 inhabitants.<5> The government believing that the goods
of the church were better destined for social function,suppressed
religious orders and instituted in Calabria a "Cassa
Sacra" (1784) into which were supposed to flow
monies from church properties for distribution among
those affected by the earthquakes. General Pignatelli
was sent to the region for this purpose but in effect
acted as a vampire so much so that in the ruins
ot tne towns, instead of giving aid to the afflicted
the cadets (of Pignatelli) gathered for themselves
the money and riches and abandoned the victims to
the tents and lean-tos all the while abusing and
taking liberties of the worst kind with them. Pignatelli
took possession of the silver, oil, silks and industry
of the churches.<6> The institute of the Cassa Sacra became
a total failure and had a deleterious effect on
the already miserable conditions of the poor, forcing
them to abandon their lands, causing the further
spread of malaria and the rise of subversive forces
against the feudal lords. "The situation is
so bad among the subjects of Calabria, that if a
reform is not made of the plan proposed by Pignatelli,
it is inevitable that the desperation will result
in dangerous so)utions."<7>
While this was happening in the Kingdom of Naples,
new events were occurring in Europe with the French
revolution (1789) which showed the people the road
to liberty and equality, destroying the old feudal
state and instituting in France, first, a democratic
state which eventually spread to the rest of Europe.
The new revolutionary ideas were contested by Austria,
England, Russia who created various coalitions of
European states against France who relied upon the
young General Napoleon Bonaparte to fight them.
He, in meeting with the various coalitions obtained
victory, glory, defeat and humiliation depending
on the campaign. The war that Napoleon made against
the first coalition, included the Italian Campaign,
March 27, 1796 which forced Austria to sign the
Treaty of Campoformio Oct. 1798. As a consequence,
various Republics were declared. La Cisalpina July
1797, Liguria 1797, the Roman 1798, all under the
protection of France either tacitly or manifestly.
Our King, Ferdinand the IV, preoccupied with the
events in Rome (and in his kingdom by the Jacobine
forces,) instigated by Admiral Nelson of England
marched on Rome in November of 1798 and occupied
it. The French General Championnet counterattacked.
He expelled the Neopolitan army from Rome and chased
them back to Naples. He occupied the city and declared
the Republic of Partenopea on January 1799.
The King left Naples on the night of the 22nd of
December 1798 under the protection of the English
fleet and ran to Sicily. The revolutionary Jacobine
princes of the regions of Crotone et al. took the
opportunity to declare various "republics."
They were shortlived however, lacking a middle class
and fueled only by an elite class not supported
by the masses as in France. It took, therefore,
a small counterrevolutionary force to suppress it
but not destroy it as the ideals of freedom and
unity spread throughout Italy. The King was joined
in a few days by Fabricio Cardinal Ruffo in Palermo.
He had occupied a position of superintendent at
the palace in Caserta. He was born in San Lucido
in Calabria 16 Nov 1744, the son of Letterio, the
Duke of Baranello and Giustina, princess of Colonna.
He informed the King of the conditions in Campania
and that the uprisings were spreading to the Calabrias,
Upper and Lower. Calabria was considered a barrier
against Sicily and if the Jacobines found a foothold
in Calabria they would unite with the Jacobines
of Sicily and an invasion the of the Island would
be inevitable. So he urged an immediate attack upon
Calabria in order to reconquer Naples. With the
push of the allied English and Russians present,
Nelson and Hamilton, Mussin-Punskin and Italinskij,
the King. having no other choice, gave assent. He
allowed the Cardinal to bring the matter forward.
Even if he lacked military experience he "...was
resolute and ponderous and possessed above all a
native sense of limits and opportunities. Besides,
he was born in Calabria, he knew the customs and
possibly a little about the problems of the Calabrese,
in the end, a man of the cloth, he could depend
on the help of the prelates and more, the lower
clerics to whom he knew how to appeal and who had
lost many privileges in the uprisings...accompanied
by the Marchese Malaspina, abbot Lorenzo Sparziani,
valet Carlo Cuccaro, and three domestics; the Roman
emigre Annibale Caporossi and Domenico Petromassi
of Augusta all meeting in Messina, the Cardinal
left for Calabria with a resolute spirit, but with
an uncertain outcome."<8>
Ruffo landed at Pezzo, near Villa San Giovanni (RC)
on February 7, 1799 with seven men, after 15 days
on the 23rd. he was in Rosarno with 2500 men and
two cannons.<9>
Arriving at Mileto the same day, he writes to Acton,
the Prime Minister of the King, "I am in Mileto
as planned. I have met with the indicated population,
all armed and between 8-10,000 people." He
remained here until the 28th of February and one
can say the Sanfedisti were established in a victory
against the revolutionary forces. <10>
The army of the Cardinal was composed for the most
part thieves, brigands. assassins, with few Bourbon
troops. They wore a white cross and their password
was "Santa Fede" <11>
(hence Sanfedisti). It is sad to say that the Christian
Army profaned the very principles of the religion
to whom it had allied.
The Jacobeans retreated befort the Sanfedisti. In
every town they conquered they were guilty of horrible
destruction and executed every Jacobine they came
across. Liberty trees were replaced by funeral Crosses.
The majority of the towns were Jacobine (republican).
Cerenzia and surrounding towns as well. Ruffo wrote
from Catanzaro Marina 14 March 1799
"In fact, Cutro is ours, San Giovanni in Fiore
is fiercely royalist to my surprise. Strongoli,
San Severina e Cariati are ours. I have learned
that Rossano has fallen, Luzzi, CorigIiano as well.
The small villages that surround Crotone are all
ours without exception. There are few towns under
Cerenzia that still show the so-called tree of Liberty.
Umbriatico is republican, as is Bisignano, Cassano
I am unsure of. Cosenza and surroundoings is republican."<12>
Crotone at that time had a population of 6000 inhabitants.
Therefore it was not a large city but because of
the port and the Castle occupied a strategic and
psychological position in the area. Considering
itself a Republic on February 3, 1799, in the face
of the advancing army of Ruffo, the Barons Lucifero
and Oliverio, the Prince of Cerenzia and Giuseppe
Soriano organized the defense of the city. It was
composed of 200 citizens, 32 Frenchmen recently
seeking shelter on their way home from Egypt, 3
cannons, with Captain Ducarne now elevated as colonel
in charge.<13> The patriots, however, were expecting
help from Championet who was supposed to be in Catanzaro
and Crotone<14>
to encounter Ruffo. This never happened and was
the cause of the dramatic defeat of the republican
cause in Calabria. The Cardinal to occipy Crotone,
from the Marina of Catanzaro, sent three thousand
Sanfedisti under the command of the bandit Angelo
Paonessa (Panzanera) and Lieutenant Colonel Perez
de Vera.<15>
Among the armed bands were the criminals, Arcangelo
Scozzafava called Galano, Lorenzo Benincasa, Paolo
Mancuso called Parafante ready to pounce on Crotone
and to profit from sacking the city.<16>
The main troop which was supposed to occupy Crotone
remained blocked at Cutro because of a great tempest.
Perez sent Capt. Dardano to Crotone as an envoy
but Crotone retused to surrender. Dardano made contact
with royalist forces that had tried to recapture
the city unsuccessfully. Perez attacked Crotone
when Dardano did not return to Cutro. From the hillside
called Madonna Della Scala, he began to bombard
the city lightly and return fire from Ducarne from
the Castle was encountered. The republicans disillusioned
and tired of waiting for French help trying to avoid
the capture of the city, planned a sortie. They
encountered the Sanfedisti on the open plain and
many were massacred. Some attempted to return to
the city and were met by the bandit forces of Panzanera.
They were unable to shut the gates and the bandit
forces sacked the city. Only those loyal to the
Bourbons were spared, the families of Morelli, Farina,
De Mayda. The Castle remained in republican hands.<17>
Two days later on the 20th of March Perez proposed
a cease fire with the following conditions: 1) give
up arms, munitions and castle 2) assurance of freedom
for those in the Castle together with their followers.
3) amnesty after capitulation. The pact was not
honored.<18>
When the occupants of the Castle surrendered, they
were arrested and detained within the same walls.
The citizens of Crotone who were loyal to the King
imposed a cease and desist on those who were not
revolutionaries and they were treated with regard
and not harmed. Donna Mariantona Lucifero, sister
of the Marchese Francesco Savedo, 13 years old (later
became the first Marchesa of De Mayda) and then
the Princess of Cerenzia would recount when she
was older of the treatment she received as prisoner
in the Castle.
A bandit tried to rob a silk handkerchief that she
wore around her neck. She slapped him across the
face and they just walked away.<19> On the 22 of March Crotone was entirely
conquered. On the parapets the Castle the Bourbon
flag flew again. The Cardinal Ruffo arrived on the
25 of March to face two facts of which he was unaware.
1) the horrible sacking of Crotone by the Sanfedisti
and 2) and the desertion of the same soldiers together
with the spoils. Many returned to their own villages
and some formed bands around Crotone and would terrorize
the surrounding villages. At the hand of the local
bands were, the noted brigands, Angelo Paonessa
(Panzanera) Arcangelo Scozzafava (Galano), Lorenzo
Benincasa, Paolo Mancuso, Francesco Muscato (Bizzarro)
Antonio Santoro (Re Corenne).
Ruffo remained in Croton to conduct a tribunal with
the following results; On March 31, the following
were condemned to death: Captain D. Giuseppe Ducarne
from Alicata in Sicily, cavelier D. Giuseppe Suriano
from Crotone, Baron D. Francesco Lucifero of Crotone,
Bartolorrico Villaroja of Crotone. The sentences
were carried out on 3 of April 1799. Other repubicans
shot were, Luigi Savelli prince of Cerenzia <20>
and others. Many republicans were spared but sent
to prisons around Calabria.
Cardinal Ruffo was undaunted by the many desertions
but continued on with regulars and volunteers from
Rossano, Santa Severina, and Cerenzia-Cariati aided
by the Bishops. From Crotone on 3 April RuIfo wrote
to Acton, "The Calabrians are completely reduced
to obedience to the King. Few rebels remain in the
villages (Corigliano and Rossano). Cosenza fell
on the 15 of March." The cardinal wanted to
occupy Rossano but he didn't want a repeat of the
Carnage at Croton. He contunues..."I have invited
the bishops of Cariati and Cerenzia, Santa Severina,
Umbriatico, Rossano (Cardamone)<21>
to let my intentions know to those cities. I must
have the leaders of the rebellion, 7 or 8 hostages
ftom the principle families, 20,000 ducats (half
within 24. hours) the rest within three days, 100
horse, 100 calvary uniforms, and arms for at least
50 men." The Bishops relayed this to the populace
during his a homily and on the 30 of March. The
Cardinal arrived on the 10th of April and the towns
surrendered peacefully. He left for Cosenza on the
13th and from there to Basilicata, Policorio, Matera,
Puglia, Altamura and finally Naples.<22>
[The next two pages are ecclesiastic letters of
interest to Dr. Aragona]
He goes on to say:<23>-<30>
Ruffo, from his arrival in Calabria, enacted some
measures of unprecedented weight: the confiscation
of all Jacobine wealth, the sequestration of those
feudal territories abandoned during the struggle,
and the exchange of money for any jail time given
to Jacobines, also some reduction in taxes to one
half what they were. Lands confiscated in our area
(Crotone-Cerenzia) the feudal lands of Duke Giuseppe
Cortese of Verzino which included, Verzino, Savelli,
San Morello; the Abbey of San Giovanni in Fiore,
the feudal lands of the Prince Tommaso Giannuzzi
Savelli of Cerenzia which consisted of Cerenzia,
Casino (Castelsilano) Montespinello (Spinello) Belvedere
Malapezza, and Zinga.<31>
G. Giuranna (a local) has in his possession the
documents dated 26 March 1799 signed by the King
Ferdinand IV, Cardinal Ruffo giving all the property
of Prince Savelli to D. Francesco Benincasa. Benincasa
then assigns Dr. Salvatore Ferrari of San Giovanni
as administrator of his properties. Dated Cerenzia,
29 March 1799.<32> This only included the property of
Tommaso and not his brother Emilio.<33>
From the victorious reconquerng of Calabria for
the Bourbons, Calabria was left with profound open
wounds caused by the difficult conditions and expressed
violently against the dominating "galantuomini"
(The gentlemen).
Also, with the lack of adequate military force,
numerous bands of thieves, murderers, who had served
the Cardinal, fled to the Sila ravaging our region
for the next fifty years.
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